The Insider Secrets of Satire Topics for an Essay

The Insider Secrets of Satire Topics for an Essay A Startling Fact about Satire Topics for an Essay Uncovered Instead, think about the methods in which pop culture plays a part in our lives. On the flip side, in the most suitable crowd, satire can be amazing. Have an article that is certainly well written is presently in your reach. It's possible to be as creative as you must be, provided that your article expresses the correct info to the readers. Educational article issues are exceptional for men and women who want to find out more on the subject of the region of creative writing. Deciding on a topic is in fact the toughest challenge for major students. The cost of an essay rides on the quantity of effort the writer has to exert. You should conduct a good research on the subject and kind of essay that you're likely to cover. Therefore, the answer to your writing will be a lot quicker if they've successfully understood your article. In case you have any troubles with writing, don't hesitate to ask our writers for aid! The Benefits of Satire Topics for an Essay Needless to say, satire essay topics can be difficult to think of. For this reason, you must be aware that a satire essay is convincing and opinionated, so if you're to read your final copy, make sure that you, since the author, can truly feel a specific pull of conviction. A satire essay is a work that's supposed to poke fun at a certain subject. In as much as your satire essay should be fun and interesting, additionally, it must be informative. When it has to do with academic writing, good satirical essay examples may be the best method to inspire and motivate you. A Modest Proposal is everything a satirical text ought to be. A wonderful quote, like from a renowned writer on satire, may be employed to help build anticipation on the subject to be addressed. After you read and watch more on the subject of satire, you're going to be better able to create it. Also, the majority of people respond more quickly to humorous writing, particularly if you succeed in getting them to understand the point you're trying to make. It's always a good idea to prevent a call from whoever will definitely make you sad. Whether it's a movie theater, a grocery shop or a playground, students may have a neighborhood hangout they think is a small silly. It's significant to grasp the problem that's ongoing at school. The Most Popular Satire Topics for an Essay The ideal method is to select an object which is already funny or ridiculous. Sel ecting the most appropriate topic is a vital part of producing a good composition that could indulge the readers. Knowing the techniques employed for the style and the goal of your content will be able to help you learn how to write satirically. On the contrary, it's an approach to a subject that you are able to use on nearly any essay kind and topic. The Definitive Strategy to Satire Topics for an Essay If you are experiencing great difficulties with your assignments, we're always prepared to help. When there's a topic which makes your blood boil, that might not be the very best subject to write about. You may not be in a position to see, but in addition, there are students covertly passing notes to one another. Concerning socialization, students have a tendency to be quite gregarious in public schools. So How About Satire Topics for an Essay? To decide on an ideal subject, you want to start by identifying your target. Nonetheless, you might still wish to get updated on r eal events concerning a distinct subject issue. The goal of satire is to result in the improvement of humanity and human society. To be aware of the conclusion of each is a fantastic art which will take years of practice and deep comprehension of human psychology. When you own a goal in mind, proceed by employing hyperbole, irony and humour to accomplish the target. The second type of satire is the Juvenalian with a focus on exposing some kind of evil or folly on the planet today. Remember that in the event that you're likely to use satire, it's also wise to utilize caution. There's an unbelievably major quantity of satire which goes on that individuals donat think about. Satire is easily the most powerful democratical weapon in the arsenal of contemporary media. In the simplest of terms, it is the act of exaggerating a specific wrong in order to imply something that is right. For example, it is often used to effect political or social change, or to prevent it. Naturally, writing satire isn't uncomplicated.

the study of aerodynamics and gravity Essay - 1515 Words

My topic for the science fair is â€Å" Which falling objects fall the fastest? â€Å". Many factors affect the speed of aerodynamics such as the different forces on the object. The aerodynamics of the object and the physics surrounding the object. Great scientists have studied falling objects such as Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. I will discuss their lives, experiments and scientific findings. Aerodynamics is the study of force on an object. It has been called the science of flight. Aerodynamics consists of two Greek words. Aerios means â€Å" concerning the air â€Å", while dynamis means â€Å" powerful â€Å". The wind duct is the basic experimental tool in the studies of dynamics. The three main forces used in aerodynamics are the lifting force, the†¦show more content†¦Why couldn’t the apple go up, or left, or right? Why did it go down? In his experiments, he found that an invisible force is pulling us down and keeping everything on the ground. This explained why the apple fell down and not in any other direction. Newton figured out that the force keeps everything on the earth. He discovered that the force even held the atmosphere around the earth. Newton called this force gravity. For example, when you jump, you come back down to earth. If there was no gravity, you would float up and disappear into space. He also discovered different planets have more or less gravity. For instance, Pluto has almost the same amount of gravity as earth, but the moon has much less gravity than the earth. If you jumped on the moon, it would take you more time to get down. Since there is less gravity on other planets, their atmosphere does not keep in much oxygen, thus it is harder to breathe on other planets. That is why astronauts wear spacesuits, to give them air. Because planets with weak atmospheres cannot hold in much heat, it is cold on the other planets, except for those close to the sun. 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Interpretation Of Ibsens A Dolls House Argumentative Essay Example For Students

Interpretation Of Ibsens A Dolls House Argumentative Essay Interpretation Of Ibsens A Dolls HouseA Dolls House is classified under the second phase of HenrikIbsens career. It was during this period which he made the transitionfrom mythical and historical dramas to plays dealing with social problems. It was the first in a series investigating the tensions of family life. Written during the Victorian era, the controversial play featuring a femaleprotagonist seeking individuality stirred up more controversy than any ofhis other works. In contrast to many dramas of Scandinavia in that timewhich depicted the role of women as the comforter, helper, and supporter ofman, A Dolls House introduced woman as having her own purposes andgoals. The heroine, Nora Helmer, progresses during the course of the playeventually to realize that she must discontinue the role of a doll and seekout her individuality. David Thomas describes the initial image of Nora as that of a dollwife who revels in the thought of luxuries that can now be afforded, whois become with flirtation, and engages in childlike acts of disobedience(259). This inferior role from which Nora progressed is extremelyimportant. Ibsen in his A Dolls House depicts the role of women assubordinate in order to emphasize the need to reform their role in society. Definite characteristics of the womens subordinate role in arelationship are emphasized through Noras contradicting actions. Herinfatuation with luxuries such as expensive Christmas gifts contradicts herresourcefulness in scrounging and buying cheap clothing; her defiance ofTorvald by eating forbidden Macaroons contradicts the submission of heropinions, including the decision of which dance outfit to wear, to herhusband; and Noras flirtatious nature contradicts her devotion to herhusband. These occurrences emphasize the facets of a relationship inwhich women play a dependent role: finance, power, and love. Ibsenattracts our attention to these examples to highlight the overallsubordinate role that a woman plays compared to that of her husband. Thetwo sides of Nora contrast each other greatly and accentuate the fact thatshe is lacking in independence of will. The mere fact that Noras well-intentioned action is consideredillegal reflects womans subordinate position in society; but it is heractions that provide the insight to this position. It can be suggestedthat women have the power to choose which rules to follow at home, but notin the business world, thus again indicating her subordinateness. Noradoes not at first realize that the rules outside the household apply toher. This is evident in Noras meeting with Krogstad regarding herborrowed money. In her opinion it was no crime for a woman to doeverything possible to save her husbands life. She also believes that heract will be overlooked because of her desperate situation. She fails tosee that the law does not take into account the motivation behind herforgery. Marianne Sturman submits that this meeting with Krogstad was herfirst confrontation with the reality of a lawful society and she dealswith it by attempting to distract herself with her Christmas decorations(16). Thus her first enc ounter with rules outside of her dolls houseresults in the realization of her naivety and inexperience with the realworld due to her subordinate role in society. The character of Nora is not only important in describing to roleof women, but also in emphasizing the impact of this role on a woman. Noras child-like manner, evident through her minor acts of disobedienceand lack of responsibility compiled with her lack of sophistication furtheremphasize the subordinate role of woman. By the end of the play this isevident as she eventually sees herself as an ignorant person, and unfitmother, and essentially her husbands wife. Edmond Gosse highlights thepoint that Her insipidity, her dollishness, come from the incessantrepression of her family life (721). Nora has been spoonfed everythingshe has needed in life. Never having to think has caused her to becomedependent on others. This dependency has given way to subordinateness, onethat has grown into a social standing. Not only a position in society, buta state of mind is created. When circumstances suddenly place Nora in aresponsible position, and demand from her a moral judgment, she has none togive. She cannot possibly comprehend the severity of her decision toborrow money illegally. Their supposed inferiority has created a class ofignorant women who cannot take action let alone accept the consequences oftheir actions. .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .postImageUrl , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:hover , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:visited , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:active { border:0!important; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:active , .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4 .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub905cb759559c84f4a45c15b900d2ae4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Yellow Wallpaper Essay PaperA Dolls House is also a prediction of change from thissubordinate roll. According to Ibsen in his

Women and the Industrial Revolution in Britain free essay sample

Women and the industrial revolution in Britain England was the birth place of the industrial revolution. The industrial revolution not only accelerated the social development of this nation but also changed social produce relationships. It has a far reaching effect on all aspect of this country. One of most important impact is the changes happened on females of this country. At the early times women in this country just stayed at home, take care of their child, arrange the servants for housework and they have no ambitious to go out fight for their own rights, their brain was blank the events happening the underworld. The revolution bring them into the totally different new world . They opened their eyes and began to fight for their freedom to gain their own right as a member of this world where they are living, women at that time not educated but men they were sent to school to acquire knowledge they learn accounting,banking,law,and medicine. We will write a custom essay sample on Women and the Industrial Revolution in Britain or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page From Coventry Patmore’s† The angel in the house† we can see how a womens life at the early times in England. The book inferred that women in that time just like a house keeper although they dont worry about foods, clothes but they are just like the puppet in the house. The angel in the house have mentioned the womens life in detail but the author did not described the womens thoughts whether women at that times satisfied their life or not. Harold Perkin the origin of English society, Barbra Corado pope Angels in Devils workshop, Doory marshall Industrial England Gerry Holloway Women and work in Britain all of these books mentioned the changes happened on the womens education,marriage,sex but they just mentioned the middle class womens life . There were large amount of working class women, I thing we have to put our attention on these women. They are the very people we have to discuss. From the affairs happened on them we can make a conclusion about women in that time. Also to research how the men think of womens role in the society from that we can get a comparison between men and womens thoughts of that times. References: Coventry Patmore, The angel in the house Havold Perkin the origin of English society Barbra Corado pope Angels in Devils workshop

Introduction of Water Pollution Research Paper Example

Introduction of Water Pollution Research Paper Example Introduction of Water Pollution Paper Introduction of Water Pollution Paper I will touch on the issues of the effects of water pollution on living things , ways to control water pollution and how to conserve and preserve water quality . Effects of water pollution on the living things and water quality Water pollution is one of the most serious environmental problems we, as a planet, face today. It occurs when substances such as human and other animal sates, toxic chemicals, metals, and oils contaminate water. This contamination can affect rain, rivers, lakes, oceans, and the water beneath the surface of the earth, ground water (Lana. )Water polluted with human and animal wastes can spread typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and other diseases. About 80 percent of the U. S. Immunity water supplies are disinfected with chlorine to kill disease-causing germs. However, disinfection does not remove harmful chemical compounds, such as polycarbonate phenols (PCs) and chloroform, or harmful metals, such as arsenic, lead, and mercury. The careless release of such toxic wastes, primarily into waste dumps, threatens ground water supplies. PCs, chloroform, and pesticides have been found in some municipal drinking water. Scientists are concerned that drinking even small quantities of these substances over many years may have harmful effects (Battlefield. Reduced recreational use. Pollution prevents people from enjoying some bodies fatter for recreation. For example, odors and floating debris make boating and swimming unpleasant, and the risk of disease makes polluted water unsafe. Oil spilled from ships or offshore wells may float to shore. It can kill water birds, shellfish, and other wildlife. Water pollution also affects commercial and sport fishing. Fish can be killed by oil or by a lack of oxygen in the water, or they may die because of a reduction in the quantity and quality of their food supply. Industrial wastes, particularly PCs, also harm fish (Gunning. ) Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards. There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of reticular uses Of a Water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the landscape changes (e. G land development , arbitration, accelerating in forested areas) in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health.

The 49 Cheapest Colleges in California

The 49 Cheapest Colleges in California SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips College is expensive, so it's prudent to consider how much you're going to have to pay before you decide to attend a particular school- especially if you live in California. While cost shouldn't be the sole determining factor in your college decision, it's definitely an important one. In this article, I'll give you a list of the cheapest colleges in California. Furthermore, I'll provide you with the prices of the top public and private colleges in California, explain college costs, and go over how finances should influence your college decision. Average College Costs in the US Before I give you the list of the most affordable colleges in California, allow me to explain average college costs so that you can compare the costs of California schools with the national averages. In its most recent survey of college pricing, the College Board (the creator of the SAT) reported that for the 2018-19 academic year the average annual total cost for an in-state public college is $25,890, and the average annual total cost for a private college is $52,500. Total cost combines the following four items: Tuition and fees Housing and meals Books and school supplies Personal and transportation expenses #1: Tuition and Fees Colleges often charge mandatory fees for services such as the on-campus library, transportation, athletic facilities, and student activities. Many colleges report a combined tuition and fees figure. According to the College Board, the average costs of tuition and fees for the 2018-19 school year are as follows: $10,230 for in-state students at public universities $26,290 for out-of-state students at public universities $35,830 for students at private nonprofit universities For state residents at California public universities in 2018-19, the average cost of tuition and fees is $9,870. #2: Housing and Meals The College Board reports that the average cost of room and board ranges from $11,140 at four-year public schools to $12,680 at four-year private schools. However, note that the cost of room and board can vary depending on the campus housing and meal plans you choose. Colleges also usually provide room and board estimates for those living off-campus based on typical student costs. #3: Books and School Supplies Most colleges estimate the average costs for required learning materials. Some colleges even include the cost of a computer and computer accessories. The College Board reports that the average cost of books and supplies for the 2017-18 school year is $1,240 for both public and private universities. #4: Personal and Transportation Expenses Colleges sometimes estimate expenses they don't actually bill you for; these include transportation costs to and from school as well as expenses for personal things such as clothing, entertainment, etc. According to the College Board, average transportation and personal expenses for 2017-18 ran from $2,750 at private universities to $3,280 at public universities. (Note that this is the only area for which the estimated cost is more expensive for those attending public schools than it is for those attending private schools.) College isn't cheap. (Refracted Moments/Flickr) Why Do Cheap Colleges in California Cost Less? The cheapest colleges in California are public colleges that are subsidized by the Californian government. California public universities are separated into two categories: California State University (CSU) schools University of California (UC) schools These schools cost substantially less for California residents. CSU schools are cheaper than UC schools; however, as a whole, UC schools are more selective and prestigious. Keep in mind that there isn't necessarily a direct relationship between the quality of a school and its cost. You can get an outstanding education at a relatively cheap school. In fact, many UC schools are considered some of the top research universities in the world. The Cheapest Colleges in California Below is the ranking list of the cheapest colleges in California. I ranked the following schools by their cost of attendance for California residents who live on-campus. All of these numbers come from College Navigator, which is part of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). I also created separate tables for CSU schools, UC schools, and private schools. Private colleges are typically more expensive than CSU and UC schools, but some offer very generous financial aid. California State University Schools CSU schools are the cheapest colleges in California. I've listed the costs of attendance for state residents who live on-campus and for those who live off-campus with their families. If you live off-campus with your family, you’ll save substantially on room and board costs. I also listed the costs of attendance for out-of-state students who live on-campus and the average net price of each school. Average net price is determined by subtracting the average amount of financial aid (for students who receive aid) from the total cost of attendance. Net price can give you a general idea of the cost of attendance after you get financial aid. As most government and institutional aid is based on demonstrated financial need, students whose families have lower incomes and fewer assets will receive more aid. The cost of attendance data is from the 2018-19 school year and the average net prices are from the 2017-18 school year. Generally, the cost of attendance goes up about 1-2% annually. Schools are listed in order of their in-state, on-campus costs (from lowest to highest): School In-State, On-Campus In-State, Off-Campus w/ Family Out-of-State, On-Campus Avg Net Price (In-State) 1. CSU Fresno $21,418 $11,093 $33,928 $6,587 2. CSU Stanislaus $21,886 $11,302 $32,434 $6,930 3. CSU Northridge $22,969 $11,961 $34,849 $8,549 4. CSU Monterey Bay $23,564 $12,087 $35,444 $13,155 5. Cal Maritime $27,350 $15,282 $39,230 $19,965 6. CSU Dominguez Hills $23,722 $11,862 $35,602 $4,533 7. CSU Long Beach $24,738 $11,866 $36,618 $9,477 8. CSU San Bernardino $23,878 $11,428 $35,758 $8,586 9. CSU Chico $24,624 $12,074 $36,504 $14,156 10. Humboldt State $24,811 $11,941 $36,691 $14,506 11. $26,139 $11,743 $38,019 $4,403 12. CSU East Bay $25,143 $11,313 $37,023 $11,422 13. CSU Sacramento $26,454 $11,816 $38,334 $9,885 14. Sonoma State $26,626 $12,780 $38,506 $16,119 15. San Francisco State $27,480 $12,220 $39,360 $14,964 16. Cal Poly Pomona $28,891 $11,935 $40,771 $12,744 17. CSU Bakersfield $26,009 $12,377 $37,889 $6,025 18. Cal Poly San Luis Obispo $28,302 $14,532 $40,182 $20,036 19. San Diego State $29,318 $12,476 $41,170 $14,568 20. $25,325 $12,761 $37,205 $12,614 21. CSU Fullerton $27,739 $11,912 $39,618 $8,274 22. San Jose State $29,193 $12,865 $41,073 $14,519 23. CSU Channel Islands $25,517 $11,885 $37,387 $15,780 Happy grads of CSU Monterey Bay (CSU Monterey Bay/Flickr) University of California Schools In this table, I ranked the UC schools by their costs of attendance for in-state students who live on-campus. I have provided all the same statistics offered for the CSU schools above. As you’ll see, UC schools are substantially more expensive than CSU schools, but their average net prices are comparable to those of some CSU schools. Again, all expenses are for the 2018-19 school year, while all average net prices are for the 2017-18 school year. School In-State, On-Campus In-State, Off-Campus w/ Family Out-of-State, On-Campus Avg Net Price (In-State) 1. UC San Diego $32,838 $26,687 $61,830 $13,452 2. UC Irvine $34,261 $26,266 $65,253 $15,014 3. UCLA $34,620 $26,349 $63,612 $15,002 4. UC Riverside $35,242 $26,483 $64,234 $12,890 5. UC Davis $35,177 $27,271 $61,649 $16,039 6. UC Santa Barbara $35,172 $27,269 $64,169 $15,724 7. UC Santa Cruz $36,217 $27,231 $65,209 $17,266 8. UC Merced $35,663 $26,239 $64,655 $12,390 9. UC Berkeley $38,066 $27,474 $67,058 $17,862 The Geisl Library at UCSD (O Palsson/Flickr) Private Colleges in California In this section, I've provided the costs of 17 top private colleges in California. For each school, I've listed the total cost of attendance for students who live on-campus and the average net price. In-state and out-of-state students pay the same price. While private colleges are far more expensive than both CSU and UC schools, some offer fairly generous financial aid packages. The following schools are organized by cost of attendance (from lowest to highest). School Cost of Attendance (2018-19) Net Price (2017-18) 1. Soka University of America $48,996 $14,739 2. Loyola Marymount University $67,369 $43,779 3. Mills College $47,784 $24,900 4. University of San Diego $67,498 $35,931 5. University of San Francisco $68,296 $34,475 6. Santa Clara University $71,778 $41,545 7. Chapman University $73,182 $41,463 8. Stanford University $71,587 $17,271 9. California Institute of Technology $72,084 $26,361 10. Pomona College $71,996 $16,988 11. Pitzer College $72,900 $30,013 12. Pepperdine University $73,002 $40,941 13. Scripps $73,756 $39,070 14. Claremont McKenna College $73,810 $26,512 15. Occidental College $74,132 $37,173 16. University of Southern California $74,825 $36,191 17. Harvey Mudd College $76,947 $38,768 Founders Hall at Soka University (Beyond My Ken/Wikimedia Commons) How to Use These Lists of California College Expenses By looking at the three lists above, you can get an idea of the costs of different types of four-year universities in California and compare the costs of specific California schools. Furthermore, you can add one of the cheaper colleges to your list of schools if cost is a concern for you. Remember that cost should only be a single factor- not the overall deciding factor- in your college decision. I advise you to extensively research colleges so you can find the college that’s best for you. When Should Cost Be a Consideration in Your College Choice? Ideally, you wouldn't have to consider cost when choosing a school, and college would be affordable for everyone. Unfortunately, in reality, cost is often a significant factor. Therefore, it's a good idea to apply to at least one or two more affordable safety schools, especially if cost is a major concern for you and your family. Keep in mind that you won't know exactly how much a certain school will cost until you've gotten accepted and received a financial aid letter, so don’t let the sticker price prevent you from applying. Most financial aid is awarded after you’ve been accepted but before you commit to the school. Many of the most selective colleges claim to meet 100% of a student's financial need through a combination of school, state, and/or federal aid. Once you get your financial aid package, it's time to determine out-of-pocket expenses and how much you would need to take out in loans. Be sure to also weigh the financial burden of attending a particular school against factors such as its quality of education, how badly you want to attend, and its expected financial return. Ultimately, it’s up to you to determine how much debt is worth it. What's Next? If you're worried about college costs and are interested in a school outside California, check out the cheapest colleges in the United States. Regardless of the school you attend, it's a good idea to learn how to pay for college so you can maximize your academic experience and save as much money as possible. After you familiarize yourself with the financial aid process, see whether you qualify for any of these awesome full-ride scholarships! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

To explore the association between congestive heart failure (CHF) and Essay

To explore the association between congestive heart failure (CHF) and household income at the federal poverty level in individuals between the ages 20 and Up - Essay Example Once an individual is poor, equitable access to preventive and remedial health for congestive heart failure (CHF) becomes a challenge (He et al, 2001). The emergence of limited small scale programs which target the address of social and health needs like CHF of the poor individuals in the society is encouraging. However the commitment of the national, state, provincial and local levels supposed to implement the policies has been inadequate (Walsh & Warren, 1980). These organs have failed to dedicate resources and funds required to expand such individual level interventions into comprehensive programs which can integrate preventions and services as well as deliver sustainable programs especially to patients with congestive heart failure (CHF) of the federal poverty level in individuals from the age of 20 and above (Braveman, 2010). People below 20 years living with this condition often receive free medical interventions from bodies like UNICEF and WHO because they are classified as ch ildren. Hence, those living with the condition and are 20 years and above have to struggle to meet their medical bills. It becomes a challenge to those from poor households because they cannot afford the costs (Lang et al, 1997). The long term solutions supposed to address the connection between poverty and CHF lie in eradicating poverty and reversing the tendency of our health care systems which discriminate against those from federal poverty levels. The mortality rates of the poor with CHF are estimated to be 3-5 times greater as compared to those with good income earnings. CHF is a major cause of mortality in poor adults from the age of 45 to 64 years (Singh & Singh, 2008). The rate is three times higher in poor individuals aged 20 to 44 years when compared to an age-matched population from good income earning population. Increased CHF mortality rates among the poor can be attributed to a complex chain between unique and traditional rates. Some

The presence of price-marked packaging has a normative influence in Dissertation

The presence of price-marked packaging has a normative influence in impulse purchase decision - Dissertation Example se 4.2.3 Price-Marked Packages and Brand Preference 4.2.4 Price-Marked Packages and Increased Traffic to Store 4.3 Summary Chapter 5: Conclusions 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Summary of Research Findings 5.3 Implications of the Research Findings 5.4 Research Limitations and Scope for future research List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: Maslows Needs Hierarchy Figure 2: Customer’s Intended Purchase Behaviour Figure 3: Initial Brand Preference of Customers Figure 4: Instore Brand Switch Figure 5: Reasons for Brand Switch . Figure 6: Income Group and Reasons for Brand Switch Figure 7: Buying Decision In the Absence of an Initial Brand Preference. Figure 8: : Buying Decision In the Absence of an Initial Shopping List Figure 9: Differences in Intended and Actual Purchses Figure 10: Reasons for Differences in Intended and Actual Purchses Figure 11: Reasons for Purchasing less than Intended Figure 12: Reasons for Brand Preference Figure 13: Brand Image of Price-Marked Products Figure 14: Cri teria for Brand Assessment Figure 15: Store Preference Figure 16: Store Preference for Price-Marked Products Figure 17: Reasons for Store Preference for Price-Marked Products Table 1: Willingness to Purchase higher priced price-marked products Table 2: Reasons for the Willingness to Purchase higher priced price-marked products List of Appendixes Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction and Background of Research Consumer behavior has been the subject of study for both academicians and marketers from time immemorial as understanding of why consumers buy products or services and how do they make their purchase behaviour is crucial to their selling efforts. Based on the knowledge of what the customers need and what are the features, attributes or contexts within which they judge the product or the organization gives the markers new insights about product development, product designing, packaging or promoting (Kotler and Keller, 2006). The literature on consumer behaviour therefore delves into the cognitive and the affective process by which the consumers make their purchase decisions and these insights are useful for the marketers for the promotion of their products and services. One such consumer behaviour – the impulsive purchase behaviour – is of great interest to the researcher, as it is intriguing to find that people make on the spot purchase decisions and often buy things that they do not need, or buy things in quantities that they do not require, simply due to in store factors like the point of sale displays, discounts, placement of the product on the shelf or the packaging of the product. The impulse behaviour is

Business Ethics in Brazil Essay Example for Free

Business Ethics in Brazil Essay In this comparative survey of 126 Brazilian and U.S. business professionals, we explore the effect of national culture on ethical decisionmaking within the context of business. Using Reidenbach and Robin’s (1988) multi-criteria ethics instrument, we examined how these two countries’ differences on Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism Rafik I. Beekun (Ph.D., The University of Texas, Austin) is Professor of Management and Strategy in the Managerial Sciences Department at the University of Nevada, Reno. His current research interests are in the area of strategic adaptation, the link between national cultures and ethics, and the relationship between management and spirituality. He has published in such journals as Journal of Applied Psychology, Human Relations, Journal of Management and Decision Sciences. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to him at: Managerial Sciences Department, Mail Stop 28, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557-0206. Yvonne Stedham (Ph.D., University of Kansas) is an Associate Professor of Management in the Managerial Sciences Department at the University of Nevada, Reno. She has published in such journals as the Journal of Management and Journal of Management Studies. Dr. Stedham’s research focuses on the following areas: CEO performance evaluation, gender discrimination in employment, ethics in business, decision making across cultures, and managing knowledge workers. Jeanne H. Yamamura (CPA, Ph.D., Washington State University) is an Associate Professor of Accounting in the College of Business at the University of Nevada Reno. Her teaching responsibilities include auditing and accounting information systems c ourses. Dr. Yamamura’s research focuses on the management of accounting professionals with a particular interest in cross-cultural differences and her work has been published in accounting and business journals. She has extensive practical experience in the field of accounting through her previous employment in public and private accounting. Rafik I. Beekun Yvonne Stedham Jeanne H. Yamamura dimension are related to the manner in which business practitioners make ethical decisions. Our results indicate that Brazilians and Americans evaluate the ethical content of actions or decisions differently when applying utilitarian criteria. By contrast, business people from both countries do not differ significantly when they use egoistic criteria in evaluating the ethical nature of business decisions. KEY WORDS: Brazil, egoism, ethics, national culture, U.S., utilitarianism As business organizations move from domestic to global and transnational competition, they are finding that cultural values vary significantly across national boundaries, and are likely to affect business practices (Husted, 2000). During the past decade, several researchers (Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt et al., 1989; Abratt et al., 1992; Hunt and Vitell, 1992; Tsalikis and Nwachukwu, 1991; Vitell et al., 1993) have noted the potential influence of national c ulture on ethics within a business context. What obscures the impact of national culture on ethics is that business practices may conflict with ethical values in a manner that medicine, law and government do not (DeGeorge, 1993). Not surprisingly, empirical research investigating the relationship between national culture and ethical decision-making is relatively sparse (Vitell et al., 1993). A primary reason for exploring the effects of culture on ethics is the increased globalization of business. This trend, in turn, is characterized by a diverse array of interorganizational arrangements that require cross-cultural interaction. As a result, cultural misunderstandings are likely to occur. One of the key areas where such mis- Journal of Business Ethics 42: 267–279, 2003.  © 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 268 Rafik I. Beekun et al. understandings take place is in the area of ethics, partly because of the influence that national cultures may have upon business ethics (Husted, 2000). Accordingly, in our study, we explore the relationship between national culture and business ethics. We will seek to investigate what process underlies ethical behavior across national boundaries. Understanding this process may help global managers develop tools to promote ethical behavior in their international workforce. In this research, we compare two culturally diverse countries, the United States (U.S.) and Brazil, in order to identify similarities and differences with regard to approaches toward ethical decision-making in a business context. Since culture is a broad concept, it is necessary to specify the values that could be related to behaviors or practices (Husted, 2000). For the purposes of this study, we used a well-established framework of national culture (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstede conducted one of the most important studies that ascertained the relationship between national culture and management. From this study, he identified several â€Å"value† dimensions along which countries differ. Using Hofstede’s (1980) framework, we carried out a crosscultural, comparative survey to assess the relationship between his individualism/collectivism dimension of national culture and ethical criteria. With respect to ethical decision-making, we adopted the instrument proposed and validated by Reidenbach and Robin (1988, 1990). They have generated a set of scales that measure the core dimensions characterizing different perspectives of ethical philosophy. Defining national culture: Hofstede’s dimensions of culture Multiple definitions and conceptualizations of national culture exist (Hofstede, 1980, 1988, 2001; Kluckhohn, 1951, 1962; Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Ronen and Shenkar, 1985; Trompenaars, 1993). Although these frameworks and conceptualizations typically center on values, they differ with respect to the specific values that are included in their respective frameworks. For instance, Trompenaars (1993) focuses on values related to relationships such as obligation, emotional orientation in relationships, and involvement in relationships. By contrast, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) emphasize more global values such as people’s relationship to nature and time-orientation. With respect to our study, Hofstede’s framework of national cultures is the most appropriate since he ident ified values related to economic activity (Husted, 2000). Therefore, his framework is germane for the study of business decisions. Focusing on national cultures, Hofstede (1997, p. 260) defines culture as the â€Å"collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another†. Thus, although the problems faced by groups (whether organizational or national) are universal, the solutions devised by each group may be relatively unique to that group. These solutions then become taken for granted over time, and may suggest why people hold certain beliefs and behave the way they do (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997). Hofstede (1980, 1988) has suggested that five dimensions of national culture underlie differences in the behavior of individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Since these dimensions describe how individuals view and interpret situations and behavior, they are likely to be related to how individuals engage in decision-making in general (Weick, 1979; Adler, 2002). Ethical decisionmaking, too, is likely to be affected by these dimensions of national culture. Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions (1980, 1988) are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity/femininity, individualism/collectivism, and long-term/short-term orientation. Power distance refers to the degree to which less powerful members in a country accept an unequal distribution of power. Uncertainty avoidance depicts a people’s ability to cope with ambiguous situations as well as the mechanisms they have created to avoid such situations. Masculinity exemplifies a focus on material things, such as money, success, etc., whereas femininity refers to a focus on quality of life, caring, etc. Individualism, which will be discussed in more detail later, refers to the tendency of people to consider their interests and those of A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics their immediate family only. By contrast, collectivism refers to the inclination of people to view themselves as part of a larger group, and to protect the interests of group members. Longterm/short-term orientation describes the time perspective people take when dealing with a situation. Table I represents the scores for Hofstede’s cultural dimensions for Brazil and the U.S. While the scores indicate dissimilarities between the U.S. and Brazil on all five cultural dimensions, by far the largest difference appears in the individualism/collectivism dimension. Brazil scored low on individualism, and hence is considered a collectivistic country; by contrast, the U.S. scored high on individualism and is considered an individualistic country. The individualism/collectivism dimension describes how individuals relate to others and to society, and represents the extent to which they are emotionally and cognitively attached to a particular network of individuals. Individualism describes the inclination of individuals to be primarily concerned with their personal interests and their immediate family’s welfare (Hofstede, 1980). Members of a highly individualistic country view themselves as independent of organizations or institutions, and place a higher value on self-reliance and individual action. Collectivism, in comparison, describes a culture where individuals are viewed as part of a larger group, and look after each other. Collectivistic cultures protect the interests of their members in return for their loyalty. In collectivist cultures, morality is defined in terms of the benefits for the in-group (family, friends, work companies, 269 etc.), implying the maintenance of solidarity (Triandis and Bhawuk, 1997). Hofst ede (1980) noted that the individualism/collectivism dimension carried â€Å"strong moral overtones† because this dimension was reflected in value systems shared by the majority. For example, in a highly individualistic country, individualism is viewed as a strength and the major reason for the country’s accomplishments. By comparison, inhabitants of a highly collectivistic country view an emphasis on self as a negative attribute to be eliminated for the good of society. Competing ethical frameworks for business decisions Ethics are the principles of human conduct regarding either an individual or a group (Shaw, 1999), and represent the moral standards not governed by law, that focus on the human consequences of actions (Francesco and Gold, 1998). Ethics often require behavior that meets higher standards than those established by law, including selfless behavior rather than calculated action intended to produce a tangible benefit. With respect to this study, business ethics describe the ultimate rules governing the assessment of â€Å"what constitutes right or wrong, or good or bad human conduct in a business context† (Shaw, 1999). In the assessment of ethical behavior, perception is critical (Hartmann, 2000). Indeed, ethical decisions may be influenced by our own perception, by others’ perceptions of our actions, and by our perception of â€Å"universal laws†. As a TABLE I Cultural dimensions (Hofstede 1980, 1988, 2001) Dimensions of culture U.S. Brazil Difference Power distance Uncertainty avoidance 40 46 69 76 (29) (30) Individualism/Collectivism 91 38 53 Masculine/Feminine Confucian Dynamism 62 29 49 65 13 (36) 270 Rafik I. Beekun et al. result, our final choices may be determined by the perception tha t is the most salient at the time. Further, Hartmann suggests that cultures may differ not only with respect to the ethical principles underlying decisions but also with respect to which of the three stakeholders – self, society, and universal laws – is emphasized in any given situation. Depending on which stakeholder is emphasized, people from different cultures may vary in their assessment of the ethical nature of a decision. Across most situations, ethical principles that distinguish right from wrong actions are encompassed by several normative theories, e.g., justice, relativism, egoism, utilitarianism, and deontology. These theories can generate potentially conflicting interpretations of what is ethical or unethical, originating from the very nature of the theories themselves. Moreover, prior research (Cohen et al., 1996; Hansen, 1992; Reidenbach and Robin, 1988, 1990) indicates that individuals making ethical decisions do not select a single theory or philosophy by which to make their decisions. In fact, Reidenbach and Robin (1988) found that a varying combination of ethical philosophies or theories is employed when ethical decisions are made. Shaw (1999) draws a distinction between two types of ethical theories, consequentialist and nonconsequentialist. Consequentialist theories suggest that the moral rightness of an action depends on the actual or intended results of the action. What is right is determined by â€Å"weighing the ratio of good to bad that an action is likely to produce† (Shaw, 1999, p. 45). A key issue underlying consequentialist theories is the nature of the beneficiaries of the action under consideration. Should one consider the consequences for oneself or for all involved? The most important consequentialist theories are egoism and utilitarianism. Egoism promotes individual self-interest as the guiding principle whereas utilitarianism advocates that everyone affected by the action or decision must be taken into account (Shaw, 1999). By contrast, nonconsequentialist theories suggest that it is not simply the consequence of an act that matters, but also its inherent character. Although these theories do not deny that con- sequences are morally relevant, they assert that other factors are also important in assessing the moral significance of an action. For example, â€Å"breaking a promise† is wrong not simply because of the consequences that result from breaking it, but also because of the nature of the act itself. In this study, we focus on consequentialist theories for several reasons. First, Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism dimension can be clearly and easily related to the two consequentialist theories. Second, the two theories represent the perceptions of two of the three possible sta keholders identified by Hartmann (2000), namely own perceptions and others’ perceptions. Third, staying within one theoretical category allows for a much more parsimonious, yet thorough, analysis. Ethical perspectives and national culture: hypotheses Whether egoistic or utilitarian principles are employed, ethics are a product of a society’s culture, which includes its traditions, values, and norms. Within a society, ethical behavior is generally agreed upon. Francesco and Gold (1998, p. 40) explain that â€Å"members implicitly understand how relationships, duties and obligations among people and groups ought to be conducted, and distinguish between their selfinterests and the interests of others.† However, when two or more countries interact, they often find that their ethics differ. According to Hendry (1999), these differences may lead to three types of culturally based ethical conflicts. First, there are those conflicts where the ethical values typifying the two national cultures lead to differing conclusions; what is deemed unethical from one perspect ive is considered to be ethical from the other. Second, conflict may arise when businesspersons from one culture consider something morally significant whereas their counterparts from another culture are ethically neutral. Third, business people from two cultures may interpret a common situation differently even when there is some commonality among their national values. A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics To investigate the relationship between national culture and ethics, we chose two culturally diverse countries, Brazil and the U.S. Given the differences in their respective national cultures, we expect Brazilians and Americans to differ in their assessment of the ethical content of business decisions. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis: H1: The assessment of the ethical content of business decisions is a function of national culture. Egoism and individualism/collectivism According to egoism, the only valid standard of one’s behavior is one’s obligation to advance one’s well-being above everyone else’s (Beauchamp and Bowie, 1997). Promotion of one’s own longterm interest is viewed as the only worthwhile objective and the only determinant of whether an act is morally right or not. Nothing is owed to others or to the organization that one works in. Those who abide by this approach to ethics intensely believe that all altruistic efforts by others are really acts of self-promotion since an individual may have to help others in order to advance his/her own interests. Brazil is collectivistic whereas the U.S. is individualistic. As discussed earlier, persons from an individualistic culture emphasize their families’ and their own int erests. H1.a: When applying egoistic criteria to judge the ethical content of an action or a decision, respondents from the U.S. will be less likely than respondents from Brazil to see a decision or action as unethical. Utilitarianism and individualism/collectivism Utilitarianism, in direct contrast to egoism, â€Å"is the moral doctrine that we should always act to produce the greatest possible balance of good over bad for everyone affected by our action† (Shaw, 1999, p. 49). Although utilitarians also 271 evaluate an action in terms of its consequences, an action is ethical if it results in the greatest benefit or â€Å"good† for the largest number of people. Issues of self-interest are not germane since actions are assessed in accordance with one primary standard: the general good. Utilitarianism has long been associated with social improvement and the promotion of actions that are in the best interest of â€Å"the community.† Actions are right if they promote the greatest human welfare. Brazil is collectivistic. Persons from a collectivistic culture focus on actions that lead to the greatest benefit for most members of a group. H1.b: When applying utilitarian criteria to judge the ethical content of an action or a decision, respondents from Brazil will be less likely than respondents from the U.S. to see an action or decision as unethical. To be consistent with prior ethics research (Reidenbach and Robin, 1988), the above hypotheses (H1.a and H1.b) together suggest that Americans and Brazilians rely on more than one ethical criterion when assessing the ethical content of an action or decision. However, we are also suggesting that when each specific ethical criterion they refer to is considered separately, people from different national cultures will vary in their assessment of the ethical content of a course of action or a decision. Methodology Sample Data were collected from 126 respondents – 92 from the U.S. and 34 from Brazil. U.S. participants included MBA students at a regional university as well as business professionals. Brazilian participants were all students enrolled in an Executive MBA program. We used MBA students in our study for two reasons. First, MBA students are a commonly used proxy for business people (Dubinsky and Rudelius, 1980). Dubinsky and Rudelius’ (1980) comparison of 272 Rafik I. Beekun et al. student versus professional evaluations found a high degree of congruence between the two groups. Second, since all students (both U.S. and Brazilian) were currently employed by companies or had recent professional work experience, the sample can be used as a proxy for business professionals in both countries. Data collection The instrument we used was Reidenbach and Robin’s (1988) pre-validated, multi-criteria instrument incorporating the core dimensions that underlie several ethical perspectives. We selected this survey instrument because it is a multi-philosophy and multi-item questionnaire. As a result, it will enable us to assess both ethical dimensions of interest, i.e., egoism and utilitarianism, simultaneously. This instrument incorporates multiple items for each ethical philosophy and, therefore, is relatively more reliable than single item instruments (Kerlinger, 1986). Reidenbach and Robin’s instrument includes an initial set of scales that has shown evidence of high reliability and modest convergent validity with respect to U.S. respondents. The scales correlate highly with a univariate measure of the ethical content of situations. Hence, the instrument can be said to have high construct validity in the U.S. Additional reliability and validation efforts for the wh ole sample and for Brazil specifically are reported below. Using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = ethical, 7 = unethical), respondents were asked to rate the action in three scenarios using the criteria (items) described in Table II. The perception of and the criteria emphasized in evaluating the ethical content of a decision or situation depend on the nature of the decision or the situation. In accordance with previous research, scenarios will be used in this study to provide the contextual stimulus and to motivate the evaluation process (Alexander and Becker, 1978). We adopted the three scenarios developed and validated by Reidenbach and Robin (1988, 1990). Table III presents the three scenarios used in this study. Data were collected by means of the abovementioned instrument administered to Brazilian participants (in Portuguese) and provided via written instrument and website access to U.S. participants (in English). The Brazilian instrument was back translated to ensure equivalence. Efforts were made to establish the reliability and validity of the instrument in this comparative context and are reported as follows. We examined the reliability of the instrument by assessing its internal consistency through the use of Cronbach’s alpha. Since we used three different measures (one for each of the scenarios), we calculated three inter-item coefficient alphas. The Cronbach alpha was 0.81 for the first scenario, 0.75 for the second scenario and 0.86 for the third scenario. All three coefficients indicate that the scale items are internally con- TABLE II Ethics instrument scales Ethical perspective Items (Seven-point Likert scale †“ 1 to 7)* Egoism Self promoting/not self promoting Self sacrificing/not self sacrificing Personally satisfying/not personally satisfying Utilitarianism Produces greatest utility/produces the least utility Maximizes benefits while minimizes harm/minimizes benefits while maximizes harm Leads to the greatest good for the greatest number/leads to the least good for the greatest number * Generally speaking, in the above bipolar scales, 1 = fair or just or efficient (ethical) whereas 7 = unfair, unjust or inefficient (unethical). A Comparative Investigation of Business Ethics

Will the European Union Survive? :: European Union Essays

"Europe must prevent Greece from becoming an out-and-out catastrophe and make sure that the same fiscal 'remedy' is not applied to other weak economies" -- Franziska Brantner. The EU (European Union) has gone thru many changes. For some countries it has been a blessing and a huge success. For others adapting to a single currency and marketplace has been quite a struggle. The EU hopes to expand even further with the introduction of more states and become one of the largest marketplaces in the world. But will the EU survive in the long term? Is it really of benefit to its members? The EU was established in 1993. It was the EEC (European Economic Community) before that in 1967 and the ECSC (European Coal and Steal Community) in 1951. Its main focus has been for the economic development of its members. Now it seems to be more focused on government, social and legal issues. But the primary reason for the EU was to create a united states of Europe. The objective for this union is to create free trade among member states creating a more competitive market place thus developing competition and in doing so giving a better standard of living for its people. This could be said true for one of its members, Ireland. Ireland has been a textbook case for the EU. Obviously each country in the EU has its different experiences with membership. Ireland has been quite the model EU member in its ability to adapt to the concept of the EU and has seen its GDP almost double in size. Currently Ireland holds the presidency for the EU and will play host to the introduction of the newer members this summer. But has Ireland really benefited from its membership or is its success due to its nearest neighbor west, America. Since its independence from the United Kingdom in 1940 Ireland has had to establish its own economy independent from British rule. Prior to this time being a part of the British Empire guaranteed commercialism for ones country. Although it could be said to be one-sided the British Empire relied on its colonies for trade. In some respects Ireland was not an industrialist nation and was predominantly an agricultural country. In order to succeed and further develop itself she had to change its way of doing business. One of the first orders of business was to introduce a better educational system.

Gender Inequality Within Society Essay

Society has conformed our minds to view gender based on one’s role in society. This labels the person as a man or a woman and then classifies them based on the â€Å"roles† that society has assigned for each. Gender inequality is caused by the unequal perceptions or even the way someone is treated, based on them being a man or woman. It tends to be the result of what is seen as socially constructed differences of the typical gender roles. This is a social problem I find compelling due to the impact it has on society. Gender Inequality can be seen in different instances, some I feel more apparent than others. It can be displayed through gender roles by classifying a man’s role in society, versus a woman’s role. Gender Inequality can also be seen amongst relationships and how they adapt to what society feels is the way they respond to the relationship. Inside the workplace is another form in which gender inequality can be apparent based on the job a man or woman have. Gender inequality is overall very diverse and wide spread; both men and women are perceived and treated in various unequal ways. Over time, gender inequality is seen by both objective criteria, through the articles that establish facts of the individual issues and through subjective experience, in which my perception and others filter throughout their own minds; causing gender inequality to become a compelling social problem today. Gender inequality is shown through the generic labels that society has established, based on the individual being a man or a woman. The social role theory proposes that â€Å"gender roles in society, such as a provider or protector roles for men and child-rearing and caretaker roles for women, strongly foster certain emotions, behaviors, and traits that meet societal expectations for those roles,† (Bascom and Wilson 2013). A man is viewed as physically stronger than a woman, where as a woman as seen as more emotional and caring. â€Å"Expected characteristics of men who fulfill these roles include being goal- oriented, assertive, aggressive, competitive, and courageous, whereas expectations for women, based on more communal roles include, being nurturing, kind, showing empathy and sympathy, and seeking social connections,† (Bascom and Wilson 2013). Society has established roles in which differentiate men and women, by focusing on how they, as individuals,  should portray different characteristics. This allows for the opportunity of mislead perceptions, by the displays of gender in an unequal manner. If a man shows any characteristics that only a woman should have, he may be seen as weaker or maybe even deviant. This is true for a woman too, as that if she portrays too much aggression or competitive characteristics, she may be too manly, instead of fulfilling what should be her more nurturing role. Both men and women seem to face gender inequality, not just one more than the other. They both can face criticism, unequal treatment and stereotypes based on whether they choose to follow the exact way society has classified the gender â€Å"norms.† Although society has created these labels, it solely comes down to the individual on whether or not they choose to be deviant against them completely, in some ways, or simply not at all. Gender inequality over the years has improved when it comes to relationships. However more often than thought of, the power of the relationship usually still lies within the male being more dominant. â€Å"Current theoretical conceptualizations of gender emphasize that it functions as a social structure, that this structure affects people at individual and interactional levels, and that the gender structure is, in turn, recursively affected by people’s actions within social relations,† (Masters, Casey, Wells and Morrison 2013). Society has created this gender structure in which it finds appropriately fitting for how a relationship structure should function. This is done based on the way a man should act and what he should do and in return, how a woman should act and what she should do. It affects those in a relationship individually but also the relationship in general based on the way they choose to interact with each other; following society’s idea of a relationship between a man or a woman or going against it. It isn’t the fact that society won’t approve of being deviant with the gender roles for a relationship, but rather that they may be perceived differently or treated unequally due to them making the choice to be deviant towards those roles. This will continue to be a social issue, unless society as a whole, forms against the relationship structure we have been told to follow. Inequality in the workplace seems to be one of the strongest aspects when it  comes to gender inequality within society. Within an organization, â€Å"patterns of gender relations constitutes a gender regime and can include inequalities between women and men in the shape of discrimination in relation to opportunities, access to services and allocation of resources or benefits; all of these aspects of gender inequalities influence women’s and men’s working life,† (Elwer, Harryson, Bolin and Hammarstrà ¶m 2013). Gender inequality in the workplace can be seen in various forms. Among many of the findings pertaining to gender inequality, one of the most consistent is women earning less wages than men. â€Å"The relational inequality theory predicts that when gender is a culturally salient hierarchal status distinction, women will tend to be excluded from high-wage firms and jobs,† (Avent-Holt and Tomaskovic-Devey 2012). When gender seems most important, or better yet, more apparent, it is more noticeable that men will make more money over a woman in the same position. More often in workplaces, men tend fill more manager type positions where as women tend to fill lower hierarchy positions. We expect that â€Å"male managers will be able to use their statuses to capture more resources, leading to larger gender wage gaps than in workplaces where men and women are randomly distributed across the workplace division of labor,† (Avent-Holt and Tomaskovic-Devey 2012). This also shows that a man in a higher position, tends to be placed there with assumption they are more qualified, therefore creating gender inequality; not only is this shown with wages paid, but within the workplace as a whole and the type of job a man receives over a woman. Because of this, people generally â€Å"estimate higher salaries for men than women because they associate men with greater occupational status or competence,† (Williams, Paluck and Spencer-Rodgers 2010). In today’s society a woman earns only seventy-seven cents to every dollar that a man earns. A woman may even have the same role as a man and generally will still make less money than him. Assumed they can perform in a more competent manner and have greater resources to allow them fulfill that position, a man is usually given a higher position over a woman who could have the same qualifications and ability to do the same job. Which is why gender inequality in the workplace exists within society. Today’s society is responsible for the overall existence of gender inequality. Society has created what it sees as the gendered â€Å"norms,†Ã‚  labeling a man and a woman individually by giving each different characteristics to which they should follow. This has allowed and opportunity for unequal perceptions to be created and for the way someone is treated to be different based on whether they are a man or a woman. Gender inequality is seen in the established gender roles, the relationship that can occur between and man and a woman and gender within the workplace The societal views which have conformed our mind, are the reasons to why this is a compelling social problem that exists and unfortunately will probably maintain its status in society for years to come. Bibliography Avent-Holt, D., & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2012). Relational Inequality: Gender Earnings Inequality in U.S. and Japanese Manufacturing Plants in the Early 1980s. Social Forces, 91(1), 157-180. Elwà ©r, S., Harryson, L., Bolin, M., & Hammarstrà ¶m, A. (2013). Patterns of Gender Equality at Workplaces and Psychological Distress. Plus ONE, 8(1), 1-10. Masters, N., Casey, E., Wells, E. A., & Morrison, D. M. (2013). Sexual Scripts among Young Heterosexually Active Men and Women: Continuity and Change. Journal Of Sex Research, 50(5), 409-420. Skolnick, A., Bascom, K., & Wilson, D. (2013). Gender Role Expectations of Disgust: Men are Low and Women are High. Sex Roles, 69(1/2), 72-88. Williams, M. J., Paluck, E., & Spencer-Rodgers, J. (2010). THE MASCULINITY OF MONEY: AUTOMATIC STEREOTYPES PREDICT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ESTIMATED SALARIES. Psychology Of Women Quarterly, 34(1), 7-20.

Сhange Management

Section 1 Demonstrate your understanding of the background to organisational strategic changeDiscuss models of strategic changeThere are a number strategic change models – such as the evolutionary model and, currently popular, the sustainability maturity model – you will need to briefly describe the main, established models, and their most common uses Diploma in Strategic Management and Leadership Unit 3: Strategic Change ManagementEvaluate the relevance of models of strategic change to organisations in the current economyFollowing on from the above point, discuss how relevant each model is in today’s business environment – dominated in the West by the continuing recession, and in the East by rapid expansion of internal demand but constraints due to the recession affecting external markets ï‚ · assess the value of using strategic intervention techniques in organisationsAn â€Å"intervention†, in this context, is when a strategic change (of direct ion/policy) is made in order to re-align the organisation with the current business and external environments. An example of this is the strategic intervention that many organisations have been forced to make due to the exponential growth of on-line, internet sales – of products and services which until very recently were safe and profitable off-line, traditional markets. You will need to discuss why using strategic intervention techniques is necessary and what the benefit could, or should, be.Section 2Demonstrate your understanding of the issues relating to strategic change in an organisation – examine the need for strategic change in an organisationHere you will need to select a specific organisation, or type of organisation, and analyse, examine, the need for strategic change in that organisation. An example of a suitable organisation would be a major high-street retailer, or a West based manufacturer facing increasing competition, mainly on costs, from the East, or a family-owned business that needs funding for growth which is only available by becoming a PLC. An alternative would be to select a business sector, and discuss this from the point of view of organisations operating in that sector. assess the factors that are driving the need for strategic change in an organisationUsing the organisation(s) that you selected in the point above, assess the relative importance of – potential impact of – each of the factors that is driving the need for strategic change – assess the resource implications of the organisation not responding to strategic changeA major strategic change is usually costly, in terms of human, physical, and financial resources, and often, reputation, image, brand awareness, for example – but the cost of not changing direction, not adopting a new strategy, can be far greater and potentially devastating. You will need to discuss this.Section 3Explain how you would be able to lead stakeholders in devel oping a strategy for change – develop systems to involve stakeholders in the planning of changeStakeholders in an organisation can include: operational employees, managers, suppliers, customers, clients, funding organisations, trades unions, professional associations, local authorities, local communities, the local and national media, government, and more. Here you need to devise and present a system – a process – a plan – that will involve such stakeholders in the planning of change in an organisation Diploma in Strategic Management and Leadership Unit 3: Strategic Change Management– develop a change management strategy with stakeholdersFollowing on from the point above, you will need to outline how you would involve stakeholders in the development of a change management strategy ï‚ · evaluate the systems used to involve stakeholders in the planning of changeThere are established mechanisms, methods, systems, designed to involve stakeholders in the planning of change – the decision making process. You will need to briefly describe these and give your view as to the effectiveness of each – create a strategy for managing resistance to changeResistance to strategic change is almost inevitable – but it can be minimized / localised – there are established, proven methods of overcoming, or at least minimising, resistance to change – an obvious one is to involve as many people as possible in the early discussions, decision-making, and implementation of a strategic change, but there are others you will need to research and discuss In the strategy that you create, you should take into account the possibility of resistance from any or all of the stakeholders – operational employees, suppliers, middle to senior managers, customers, suppliers, shareholders, unions, external agencies, and so on.Section 4Explain how you would plan to implement models for ensuring ongoing change – develop appropriate models for changeHere you will need to discuss available models, and against the background of continuous, ongoing change (remember the saying â€Å"Change is permanent!), discuss the core model of change that you propose, and then describe the actual, completed model that you plan to use – plan to implement a model for changeFollowing on from the point above, here you need to prepare an outline plan – showing timescales, resources, stages, and objectives, for the implementation of your change approach – develop appropriate measures to monitor progressJust as it asks †¦ straightforward monitoring and control for effective  implementation – virtually the same approach as would be taken for the monitoring and controlling of the implementation stage of any project or plan – but †¦ don’t forget the â€Å"resistance† factor has to be addressed Don’t forget that you also need to write a Reflective Statement and add a list of Sources of Information-References showing any books, websites, articles, case studies, reports, internal documents, people interviewed, that you drew on to complete this assignment. The Reflective Statement and Sources of Information

Effective Institutional Strategies For Improving Reading Skills †Education Research Paper

Effective Institutional Strategies For Improving Reading Skills – Education Research Paper Free Online Research Papers Statement of The Problem Reading is a complex and dynamic process (Pearson Stephens, 1994). Often a great deal of emphasis is placed on providing support for very young readers. Because older students, those in grades 4 and above, generally do not get this same level of support their reading difficulties may go unchecked. Students in upper elementary grades who experience reading problems tend to be labeled instead of taught (Swadener Lubeck, 1995). The child is viewed as somehow deficient, which places the blame for the child’s academic difficulty on the child. This deficiency model is at the root of the at-risk label. Labeling a child at-risk implies that the child and his/her family are somehow deficient and that failure is almost inevitable. The implication of the deficiency model is that the child needs remediation to make up for what is missing in order to fix him/her (Fine, 1995). It is true that some students have challenges, such as poverty, single parent families, difficulty in school, etc., which others do not have. In articles, papers, and government documents, these children are labeled as at-risk (Swadener Lubeck, 1995). Changes in the education, and lives, of these children begin with a â€Å"conceptual re-orientation of assumptions†¦from student risk to student potential† (Genevieve, 2000, p. 52); from children at-risk to children facing challenges. A more positive view of the child will lead to more positive ways to support children. According to Swadener (1995), it is time to move beyond the deficiency model. Instead of ascribing deficiencies to the child and family, educators need to begin to find solutions to assist these students. Education professionals need to stop viewing certain students as at-risk and instead take a more positive approach (Wang Reynolds, 1995). By changing the way we view the child and his/her life circumstances, teacher and child are empowered to use those challenges as strengths. Thus, instead of using the term at-risk to describe these children, I will use children facing challenges. True change will not just come from rearranging the way we think about these children; new labels are not the answer. We, as education professionals, must also know what instructional methods work to transform challenges to strengths. Children in grades four and above deserve the same level of research-based support that younger children already receive. The focus of this paper is on students in grades 4-6 who are continuing to have reading problems and face additional challenges in their lives. Many times, their lack of success in school has led them to have feelings of academic insecurity and inferiority. It is not that these children cannot succeed in school; it is that they do not have the tools or the belief that they can. Through explanation and modeling, the teacher can give them the tools, but that is not enough. The teacher must strongly believe that the students can successfully implement these tools, train them how to use them, and allow them to be responsible for dong so. Once students experience the self-confidence that results from accomplishing a difficult academic task, they will feel more confident about accepting new educational challenges. Thus, by standing on the foundation built by the teacher, the student can put the cycle of achievement into motion. Purpose The purpose of this documentary review is to identify those instructional strategies that research has shown effective in improving reading skills of children facing challenges in grades 4-6 in a general education classroom. This paper will also explain how the general classroom practitioner can implement those strategies in the classroom. The function of this paper is to serve as a tool for classroom teachers. Question What instructional strategies are identified in research as effective in improving reading skills of children facing challenges in grades 4-6 in a general education classroom? Rationale To date, reading research â€Å"has been narrowly interpreted and focused almost wholly on the very beginning stages of reading instruction† (Allington, 2001, p. 2). Students in the upper elementary grades have not gotten the attention that has been given those in the lower grades. There is also a need for additional information about the instruction of children facing challenges in the general education classroom. (Fuchs, Fuchs, Bishop, 1992). Cunningham and Allington (1999) state, â€Å"classroom teachers are the most important factor in the success or failure of at-risk children in our schools† (p. 1). Teachers who work with children facing challenges in grades 4-6 need a set of strategies that have shown to be successful. The strategies presented in this paper are supported by research, and teachers who use these strategies can feel confident that they are using strategies demonstrated as effective with these children. In addition, they will be able to back up their instructional methods in the classroom with the research presented in this paper. In terms of reading development, children in grades 4-6 are in transition (Allington, 2001). Many times children in these grades were not identified at the beginning of their school careers as experiencing reading difficulty, and according to researchers (Madden Slavin, 1989; Shanahan Barr, 1995) even if they did receive early intervention, the learning gains students made in reading through programs such as Reading Recovery are difficult to sustain. By fourth grade, students who had previously been making academic progress in early intervention programs begin to have difficulties again (Allington, 2001). They are falling through the cracks in the educational system. Although some attend pullout programs such as Title 1, Allington and McGill-Franzen (1989) found instruction that took place in these pullout programs to be less effective in improving reading ability than instruction in the regular education classroom. Of the Title 1 programs that do exhibit student gains, marginal increases in student achievement have been found (Madden Slavin, 1989). Thus, in addition to the programs in which students do show gains, â€Å"effective instructional strategies within classrooms are needed to sustain the effects† (Taylor Hanson, 1997, p. 197). According to Cunningham and Allington (1999) the majority of reading instruction still takes place in the regular education classroom. Consequently, it is increasingly important for teachers to use strategies in their classrooms that are not only effective but also appeal to this particular age group. Definitions of Terms The following terms are defined so that the reader may fully understand their meaning within the context of this study: Children facing challenges: Students who possess one or more of the following risk factors would be defined as children facing challenges: poverty, single parent homes, minority status, English as a second language, cognitive or behavioral problems. Research supports this definition. Familial poverty is the single strongest factor that puts a child at risk for academic difficulties (Allington, 1993). Students say that neighborhood violence, single parent homes, and poverty are the most important contributing factors to problems with school (Haycock, 2001). The incidence of high-school drop out is higher for children of single parent homes than it is for two parent homes (Johnson, 1997). Ethnic minorities and ESL students may experience difficulty in school due to discrimination and cultural and language differences (Johnson, 1997). Cognitive and behavioral difficulties increase the chances that children will experience negative results (Johnson, 1998). Negative Results: The negative outcomes that may evolve as a child grows. Some examples include academic delays, substance abuse, incarceration, high school drop out, pregnancy, and suicidal behavior (Johnson, 1998). Title 1 (formerly Chapter 1): â€Å"Federally funded compensatory education program in the United States, intended to serve children of lower socioeconomic backgrounds who may be at risk of school failure, particularly in the elementary grades† (Harris Hodges, 1995, p. 257). Limitations/Delimitations This paper is subject to the following limitations and delimitations: 1. Material selection is limited to those available through the ERIC database and the libraries of Texas Woman’s University and University of North Texas. 2. Research is limited to that done by others. 3. The focus of this paper is on students who can be characterized as children facing challenges and are in grades 4-6. Assumptions 1. Research used valid and reliable instruments and was accurate. 2. Certain strategies have a research base that indicates they are effective with children facing challenges. 3. These strategies would be applicable for use in the general education classroom. CHAPTER 2 PROCEDURES AND METHODOLOGY Design of the study The design of this study is a document review. I amalgamated research studies that center on instructional strategies effective in improving reading skills of children facing challenges in grades 4-6 in a general education classroom. Database sources I performed numerous computer searches for research information through Academic Search Premier, EBSCO Online Citations, ERIC, MasterFILE Premier, and Professional Development Collection databases. I also checked the reference lists of the initially selected articles that were related to instructional strategies or children facing challenges, but these studies were outside the scope of this review and were not included. Records were eradicated if they could not be located in databases in full text, at the libraries of Texas Woman’s University or University of North Texas, if the grade level of participants was outside grades 4-6, or if the focus was not distinctively related to instructional strategies effective in improving reading skills of children facing challenges. I refined the search using the following method: Search 1 Database: ERIC Descriptor: reading instruction Number of Hits: 10,000 I wanted to be sure that I was not missing any resources on reading instruction that might be in other databases so I expanded my search to include Academic Search Premier, EBSCO Online Citations, and Professional Development Collection. Search 2 Database: Academic Search Premier, EBSCO Online Citations, ERIC, Professional Development Collection Descriptor: reading instruction Number of Hits: 10,802 Looking back at the databases, I added MasterFILE Premier. Search 3 Database: Academic Search Premier, EBSCO Online Citations, ERIC, MasterFILE Premier, Professional Development Collection Descriptor: reading instruction Number of Hits: 11,180 Initially, when I did the third search, I did not include a search for related words. However, when I did include them, I got the same number of hits. At this point, I began narrowing my search. In doing so, I would have used the descriptor at-risk, but I noticed that the list of ERIC descriptors used the term high risk instead. I therefore used the descriptor high risk. In all the searches that follow I used the same databases as in the previous search. Search 4 Descriptor: reading instruction and high risk Number of Hits: 372 I thought maybe I could narrow the number of hits drastically if I were to be very specific in my descriptor. Search 5 Descriptor: reading instruction and high risk and grade 4 and grade 5 and grade 6 Number of Hits: None (no results were found for your query) I now needed to broaden my search again. Thus, instead of including individual grade levels, I changed my descriptor to elementary education. Search 6 Descriptor: reading instruction and high risk and elementary education Number of Hits: 137 My method now was to look at article titles and abstracts from search 6. However, I thought I would try to be more specific and use the descriptor intermediate grades instead of elementary education and see how many hits I got. Search 7 Descriptor: reading instruction and high risk and intermediate grades Number of Hits: 13 I did five more searches after search 7 but used a different method. I went to the library and copied phrases from the ERIC book of descriptors and combined those with names of strategies I had read about in some of the articles. Search 8 Descriptor: high risk students and direct instruction Number of Hits: 43 Search 9 Descriptor: high risk students and story grammar Number of Hits: 8 I decided to broaden my search because I hadn’t found enough sources that I thought would be very useful. Search 10 Descriptor: high risk students and reading strategies Number of Hits: 84 Again, I tried using a specific strategy in my descriptor. Search 11 Descriptor: high risk students and teacher modeling Number of Hits: 6 I broadened my search by using a more general descriptor, reading skills, instead of naming a specific strategy in the descriptor. Search 12 Descriptor: high risk students and reading skills Number of Hits: 162 After all this I had enough resources that I could look through the references and then go to those sources. Ultimately, I identified five studies that are included in this documentary review. Data Analysis For this analysis, research literature was organized according to the instructional strategy. I took information from the studies and put it into chart format to include citation information, purpose/rationale, participants, design, findings, and implications/future research (See example in Appendix A). Commonalities that emerged from the literature were techniques linked to oral transactions. Communication between teacher and learner, tutor and tutee, and student and student was a vital part of the studies. In each case, the use of a specific instructional strategy resulted in gains in the reading skill of children facing challenges in grades 4, 5, or 6. In the next chapter, I will describe these strategies, and in the fourth chapter I will identify the threads that were evident in the studies, discuss implications for classroom teachers, and make recommendations for future study. CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW Vygotsky (1986) emphasizes the vital role dialogue and social interaction have in a student’s literacy development. He posits that an environment in which instruction emphasizes collaboration is of utmost importance to the cognitive growth and development of students. Students should be active partners in classroom interactions, responsible for constructing their own knowledge, skills, and attitudes and not just emulating the teacher (Leong Bodrova, 2001). The role of the teacher is to interact with students to jointly construct meaning since it is teachers and peers who most effectively guide a student’s learning (Jaramillo, 1996). Three key factors contribute to constructing meaning during reading: the reader, the material, and the reading environment. All of the strategies presented in this paper focus on how the reader and teacher, which may sometimes be another peer, interact with one another in the reading environment. The reading process is made up of multiple components: word recognition, fluency, comprehension, an understanding of vocabulary and language structures, active learning, and enjoyment of reading (Richek, Caldwell, Jennings, Lerner, 1996). Good readers automatically use these components, but children who are facing other challenges in their lives often require guidance in the use of these components. Through the use of the following strategies teachers can guide students’ reading development. Cross Age Tutoring A number of research studies indicate the importance of social interaction in learning. Several support the use of cross-age tutoring as an effective way to incorporate the social aspects of reading and to improve the reading skills of children facing challenges. Giesecke and Cartledge Giesecke and Cartledge (1993) conducted a study to determine the benefits of peer tutoring and the effects of cross-age peer tutoring when low-achieving students serve as tutors. The authors wanted to find out if low-achieving students could tutor their younger peers effectively while at the same time improving tutor achievement and self-confidence. Participants were third- and fourth-grade students, six males and two females. Four of the students were Black, and four were White. All attended an inner-city elementary school located in a low-socioeconomic area of a large city. Teachers identified the fourth-grade tutors based on below average reading performance on standardized tests and low peer social status. Third graders reading at grade level were chosen to serve as tutees in order for all students to be on the same third-grade reading level. Researchers trained tutors the week prior to beginning tutoring. After this initial training of the tutors, they met with their tutees 16 times over 5 weeks for 30 to 40 minutes per session. During the sessions, students followed a four part routine. During the first 10 minutes, researchers passed out materials including sight words to be taught that day, while tutors helped one another define unknown words, and discussed problems that had previously arisen or might arise during tutoring. In addition, tutors shared successes from the previous sessions. For the second part of the session, tutors worked with tutees for 5-minutes to learn new sight words. During this time the tutee was given three opportunities to respond correctly. After three attempts, the tutor told the tutee the word, tutee repeated the word, and tutor praised tutee. During the third part of the session, which lasted 10 minutes, the tutor and tutee played one of four word games that required them to practice the sight words as well as their use in sentences. The tutor’s only role during the games was to provide assistance when needed. The final part of the tutoring session, testing and charting, lasted 5 minutes. The tutees were given 3 seconds to respond to word cards. Tutors drew a happy face or an X on the back of each card to differentiate between words read correctly and incorrectly. The results indicated that low-achieving students, who served as tutors, made gains in reading skills (Giesecke Cartledge, 1993). They showed improved achievement in sight-word recognition and improved self-concept. These findings demonstrate that when low achieving students serve as tutors there is a positive impact on their reading achievement and self-concept. Taylor Hanson Similar results were found in the cross-age tutoring program conducted at Webster Magnet School, an elementary school located in a large city (Taylor Hanson, 1997). Of the students who attended Webster, 56% were minorities and 49% qualified for subsidized lunches. The program was created as a supplement to a classroom intervention for challenged second-grade readers and paired those readers with fourth-grade tutors. Twelve second-grade students, whose mean score was at about the tenth percentile on the fall Metropolitan Achievement Text 7, were chosen to serve as tutees. Twelve fourth-graders were selected by their teachers to serve as tutors based on below grade level reading and reading a third-grade basal with 85% accuracy. The purpose in pairing these students for cross-age tutoring was to extend reading help to those children who needed support beyond Reading Recovery. The cross-age tutoring program lasted 21 weeks. For the first 14 weeks, the sessions were held 5 days a week. On Monday and Tuesday, tutors met with the reading coordinator and one of their teachers for 45 minutes to prepare to tutor. Tutors kept a record of word recognition strategies discussed so that they could refer back to them as they practiced with one another or tutored the second graders. The fourth graders also practiced reading the books the tutees would be reading aloud to them and the picture book they would be reading aloud to their tutees. Teachers modeled, and students practiced, how to coach by giving clues instead of telling the answer. Tutors and teachers worked together to create a comprehension extension activity based on the picture book. On Wednesday and Thursday, tutors and tutees met for 25 minutes. During this time tutees read aloud to their tutors, while tutors offered prompts to help tutees decode words. Tutors read to their tutees the picture book they had practiced. Tutors also engaged their tutees in story discussions, using questions they had written beforehand as a guide, and discussed words that might be new to the tutees. The final activity of the tutoring session was the comprehension extension activity. Following this, the tutors met for another 20 minutes for a review session. They discussed what went well and concerns regarding the tutoring sessions. Teachers provided positive input and guided the tutors in solving problems. For the remaining seven weeks of the program tutors met once a week with tutees for a 25 minute session. Tutors received a copy of the book the tutees were reading in class so tutors could practice reading it and tutors selected and practiced reading a picture book (Taylor Hanson, 1997). Assessments of tutor reading indicated that tutors made progress in reading. At the beginning of the fourth grade, tutors read aloud from a narrative passage in the third grade basal and got a mean word recognition score of 94.3%. By the end of the school year all â€Å"12 children could read a narrative passage from the end of the fourth-grade basal with at least 95% word recognition accuracy† (Taylor Hanson, 1997, p. 202). Metropolitan Achievement Text 7 scores also indicated reading improvement by tutors. In the fall of fourth grade all 12 tutors had a mean raw score on the reading subtest in the twelfth percentile, in the fall of fifth grade they scored in the nineteenth percentile. â€Å"Together, the oral reading and standardized test results suggest that†¦[tutors] made progress in reading during the school year† (Taylor Hanson, 1997, p. 202). Common Characteristics Although not conducted in exactly the same manner, both the cross-age tutoring program conducted by Giesecke and Cartledge (1993) and that conducted at Webster Magnet School (Taylor Hanson, 1997) possess some common characteristics. Time for discussion and reflection by the tutors was integral. Students were empowered to take responsibility for their own learning and the learning of others. Teachers were involved in initial stages of tutor training but mostly served as a facilitator, or coach, while the students did the teaching. Through using these fundamental components, both cross-age tutoring programs demonstrated increases in the reading process skills of word recognition, vocabulary, and active learning in children facing challenges when they serve as tutors. In addition, although the general focus of this review addresses grades 4-6, results for the studies also showed that younger students made gains on standardized tests and in word-recognition skills. Therefore, the results indicated that both the low-achieving students who served as tutors, and their younger peers benefited from cross-age tutoring (Giesecke Cartledge, 1993). Strategy Instruction A second strategy supported by research to be effective in improving the reading skills of children facing challenges is strategy instruction. Research shows strategy instruction to be effective in improving skills of children facing challenges. Dole, Brown, and Trathen Dole, Brown, and Trathen (1996) conducted a study that was designed to determine whether a student-centered strategy or a teacher-directed strategy would better assist students with independent reading. In this study they compared strategy instruction, which is student centered, to content instruction and basal instruction, which are teacher-directed. A student-centered activity is one in which students and teacher interact to build knowledge while a teacher-directed activity is one in which there is much less interaction and the teacher more or less provides the knowledge for the students by telling them what they need to know. In this study, teachers of story content instruction provided, prior to reading, the information students needed to understand the text. Instruction focused on the events in reading that the teacher determined were important. This strategy has been shown effective when the teacher is able to support students, but not on independently read texts. Basal i nstruction, in which the basal reader determines the teacher’s instruction, was chosen as the control group. Dole and colleagues (1996) study did not include any further details about activities in content and basal instruction. Strategy instruction focused on teaching students a strategy for activating their own prior knowledge. During strategy instruction the teacher concentrated on teaching students why and when to use a strategy to build their own prior knowledge. This prior knowledge strategy included making predictions, identifying main characters, identifying the central problem, and identifying a problem’s resolution. Students were to learn to use this strategy independently so that they could apply it to independently read texts. Participants were 67 fifth- and sixth-grade students from an elementary school in a large city. All students met the federal criteria for designation of â€Å"at-risk† based on their academic and social backgrounds. In addition, participants were chosen based on teacher judgment and the previous year’s Stanford Achievement Test reading scores and were randomly assigned to one of three groups: one received strategy instruction, one received story content instruction, and one received traditional basal instruction. Instructors for the groups consisted of three teachers. They followed prepared scripts for the instructional conditions, and the teachers rotated through the instructional treatments, each spending about 8 days in each one of the three groups. Fifty-minute instructional sessions were conducted Monday through Thursday for five weeks. All students in the three groups followed the same schedule. In all three groups, students first received their instructional treatment for about 10 to 15 minutes, and then silently read a narrative selection. All groups read the same selection on the same day. They then answered six written, open-ended comprehension questions. Teachers then led students in a brief discussion of the reading selection. In the strategy instruction group, teachers practiced gradual release of responsibility (Pearson Gallagher, 1983) and scaffolded instruction so that students increasingly took responsibility for using the strategy independently. During the first week, the teacher modeled the strategy and how to use it through a modified version of a story map. Students made a story map for each selection read and used three cue questions- who (characters), what (problem), and how did the problem turn out for which they wrote down key words or phrases (Dole et al., 1996). During the following two weeks students modeled the strategy. The third week students worked in small groups. The fourth week students worked in pairs, and the fifth week they worked independently. In order to assess learning, students in all groups were given three sets of investigator-made tests. Two were administered in the first two days of the study, two in the last two days, and two seven weeks later. The results of the last two sets of test indicated that the strategy group outperformed their peers. Dole and colleagues found that in this study involving children facing challenges, â€Å"the strategy instruction group scored significantly higher overall than the story content group or the basal group† (1996, p. 72). Dole and colleagues conducted a second phase of this study to investigate the qualitative aspects of strategy instruction. Their purpose was to investigate how instruction and motivation influence responses to strategy instruction and how those responses affect comprehension (Dole et al., 1996). Early in the five-week program teachers noticed a marked difference in the way certain students responded to strategy instruction. As time progressed some students seemed more motivated and eager to participate in daily activities, they also showed increased reading comprehension on daily written questions. Other students, however, were increasingly unmotivated, avoided daily strategy activities, and voiced their distaste for strategy instruction altogether. Because of these marked differences in student reactions, researchers developed student profiles of a lower ability reader, who did well with the strategy, and a higher ability reader, who did not do well, from within the group of children facing challenges that received strategy instruction. The first student, Phoung, was a Vietnamese immigrant and spoke English as a second language. She scored in the fourth stanine on the Stanford Achievement Test. She rated herself as an â€Å"ok† reader, whispered answers to questions in a questioning tone, and struggled to keep up in class. During the first week of instruction she wrote the word guess next to her answers on the written comprehension questions to indicate her method of finding answers. When asked about her strategy for understanding a story she indicated that she just asked someone else the answer (Dole et al., 1996). Researchers and teachers noticed some changes in Phoung in the second week of instruction, after she received strategy instruction. She began to identify the main character’s problem and making a story map to better understand the reading. She also started to eagerly participate in and lead group work. Her mannerisms and voice became more confident and the word guess no longer appeared next to her answers. In addition, her story map and comprehension performance rose approximately one point on a 0 to 6 scale. She reported liking the strategy and that she would use it in other classes. Because Phoung saw the value of using the strategy, she was motivated to implement it and therefore showed increases in scholastic achievement. Melinda, the second student, scored in the sixth stanine on the Stanford Achievement Test. She rated herself as a â€Å"super† reader, and reported that if she was having difficulty with a text she reread the story until she understood it. When introduced to strategy instruction she appeared eager to learn it to help make her an even better reader. During the beginning of the instructional treatment she reported using prediction and previewing to understand the text. About two and a half weeks into the instructional treatment, however, she began to demonstrate a steady deterioration in behavior. When asked about her strategy use she reported that she didn’t ask herself any questions because they didn’t help her understand the story. When subsequently asked about using questions during reading she refused to answer. This indicated to researchers that she did not value this aspect of the strategy and therefore became unwilling to use it. In addition, Melinda did not like group work, reporting that she could do it better by herself. She indicated that making a story map was too time consuming when she could just figure it out in her head quicker, and that she would not use it in other classes. Although data indicated that she knew how to use the strategy, as the instructional treatment progressed her comprehension scores declined. Melinda still thought of herself as a â€Å"super† reader, but she did not view the strategy as useful, was not motivated to use it, and when attempting to use it saw a decrease in comprehension. Transactional strategy instruction focuses on group work, teachable moments, strategy combining, and reading as problem solving. These aspects of instruction combine to increase comprehension and get students actively involved in their learning through constructing their own knowledge. As always, some strategies work better for some students than others. This study â€Å"indicated that higher achieving readers [among this group of children facing challenges] comprehended more when they used their own preferred strategies than when other strategies were imposed on them through instruction† (Dole et al., 1996, p. 82). This may be because lower achieving readers who have fewer strategies to use may benefit more than students who have already identified strategies that work well for them. Not only do the better readers use more strategies, but they also know when to use them so that the introduction of new strategies are not as meaningful. Thus, strategy instruction may work best with students who have knowledge of very few strategies they can rely on when they have challenges with reading. Literature Study Groups Literature study groups are a third strategy supported by research to be effective in improving the reading skills of children facing challenges. Although often called by different names, literature study groups are founded on the same basic principles. Through interaction and collaboration teachers and students work to make sense of the story. Teachers do not direct, they facilitate student directed discussion in which all responses and interpretations are considered valid. Dugan and Bean Transactional Literature Discussions has been shown to improve reading skills of children facing challenges. Dugan and Bean (1996) explored the nature of dialogue and interaction during teacher scaffolded literature discussions with children facing challenges. They investigated the impact of Transactional Literature Discussions on the reading and writing performance of individual students. This study was performed, to a certain extent, to investigate instruction that assists students in progressing from basic word level reading to taking a more active role in reading in order to develop a relationship between reader and text. Participants were six, fifth-grade students, two females and four males. All students attended a Title 1 class or got some sort of instructional support for reading problems. Students were selected based on poor comprehension on an informal reading inventory and teacher opinion of poor classroom conduct. Transactional Literature Discussion involves a six-step cycle. In the first step, getting ready, students preview text and make predictions prior to reading. Second, in reading and thinking aloud, students respond orally as they read. Third, wondering on paper, involves students writing their reaction to the text on sticky notes to mark the part of the story to which they are referring. These are used to remind students what they were thinking about in preparation for the discussion in talking about it. In this fourth step, with the teacher as facilitator, students discuss their ideas in order to develop deeper understanding. This step usually last from 15 to 30 minutes (Dugan, 1997). Here, the researchers used the RQL2 (Dugan Bean, 1996) strategy to assist students in their discussions. RQL2 is an acronym for respond, question, link, link, and listen. Students respond to the text and to each other’s comments, question ideas, link story events, link personal experi ences, and listen to each other (Dugan Bean, 1996). The fifth step is thinking on paper. In addition to reflecting and expanding their thoughts, the purpose of this step is for students to develop writing and communication skills. Students may do this individually or in collaboration. The final step, looking back, is a time for students to consider their responses and get ready to read the next section of the text (Dugan Bean, 1996). Using this method encourages students to become active learners because they are identifying what is important to them in the story, and it gives them a sense of control over their learning. The students and teacher met for 15 group sessions of 45 minutes over 8 weeks. Like strategy instruction (Dole, et. al., 1996), researchers in this study also drew on the concept of the gradual release of responsibility (Pearson Gallagher, 1983) and divided the instructional sessions into three parts consisting of five lessons apiece. In the first part (lessons 1-5), reading, writing, and discussion were teacher-directed. For the second part (lessons 6-10), students and teacher shared responsibility for discussions and literacy activities. In the third part (lessons 11-15), the teacher served as a facilitator while students led discussions and literacy activities. â€Å"The results of this study suggest that Transactional Literature Discussions is a promising approach to literacy instruction with [children facing challenges]† (Dugan Bean, 1996, p. 24). Students demonstrated more aspects of higher order thinking during discussions in which teacher and students shared re sponsibility (lessons 6-10). Posttests revealed increased comprehension by at least one grade level for four of the six students. A discourse analysis also determined that students demonstrated considerable growth in their ability to collaboratively construct meaning through oral transactions within the group (Dugan Bean, 1996). McCutchen, Laird, and Graves A second type of literature study group, Extended Classic Books, was implemented by one school district in an attempt to provide children facing challenges with opportunities to participate in higher level thinking book discussions. McCutchen, Laird, and Graves (1993) investigated this instructional program to evaluate its effect on participating students. Participants were 40 fourth-grade students from six elementary schools. Subjects were chosen based on teacher judgment and poor performance on the Metropolitan Achievement Test reading subtest, with scores in the third stanine or below. Groups were made up of four to ten students and met at their respective schools, over a six week period, for about 40 minutes per session. Individual schools determined how often each group met. Volunteers from the community led the groups. Before meeting with students volunteers trained for five weeks. They read and discussed classic children’s books and took turns being the group leader. Their focus was on asking open-ended questions in a way that would encourage participation. Group members also assessed how leaders asked questions. It was stressed that students need the room to express their ideas and that children facing challenges need opportunities for vocabulary growth, development of reading skills, and positive experiences with books. Researchers evaluated two years of the program and found positive results. In the first year, students’ reading abilities were assessed using an informal reading inventory as a pre- and post-test. The largest gains were found in comprehension, with lesser gains also found in reading speed and word-reading accuracy. In addition, researchers noted a change in the affect of students. They seemed more confident in their ability to read and actually argued over what books to read next (McCutchen et al., 1993). This is important because many times children facing challenges do not do enough actual reading to develop the ability to read well (Richek et al., 1996). During the second year, researchers explored the interactions within the literature study groups. In order to acquaint students with the format of the group, leaders discussed short poems and modeled how to lead a discussion in the first sessions of the program. They also familiarized students with Raphael’s (1984) â€Å"in your head† questions and â€Å"in the book† questions. Although students could ask any kind of question, they were encouraged to focus on â€Å"in your head† questions. Students were given a copy of a book to read before the next session. When the groups next met, and every time thereafter, the volunteer initiated discussion through open-ended questions. Instead of viewing these queries as a script, leaders were to follow the students’ conversational direction whenever possible. In addition, students were to address comments and questions to one another instead of the group leader. McCutchen and colleagues (1993) noted that in some groups students were more engaged in the books and discussion than in others. They described the characteristics of a successful group as being one in which students were engaged and the leader did not view the questions as script. Instead, the leader went along with the student directed topic and posed open-ended questions that adhered to the student chosen subject matter. Using a more responsive style of leadership helped to maintain student interest and therefore extend learning. Thus, McCutchen and colleagues (1993) found that children facing challenges have the ability to meaningfully contribute to higher-level conversations about literature if correctly engaged. Common Characteristics Both Transactional Literature Discussions and the Extended Classic Books program have some common characteristics. The premise behind both types of literature study groups is that meaningful reading discussions center on questions of interpretation rather than questions of fact. Both guide students to use critical thinking skills. The use of these higher-level thinking skills is a key to reading comprehension (Richek et al., 1996). In addition, when students have the opportunity to exchange ideas with others they develop and extend the knowledge of all participants (Vygotsky, 1978). By using these instructional features, teachers successfully addressed the reading process components of fluency, comprehension, active learning, and reading enjoyment. Conclusion Cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, and literature study groups all address one or more components of the reading process. Cross-age tutoring (Giesecke Cartledge, 1993, Taylor Hanson, 1997) used activities focusing on word recognition, vocabulary, and active learning to result in academic gains in children facing challenges when they served as tutors. Strategy instruction (Dole et al., 1996), by focusing on teaching students strategies to get them actively involved in the construction of their own knowledge, showed improvements in students’ reading comprehension. Literature study groups (Dugan Bean, 1996, McCutchen et al., 1993) actively involved participants in student-centered discussions with resulting increases in reading enjoyment, fluency, and comprehension. In each study, the teacher or student acting as the teacher was responsible for guiding the student to take responsibility for his or her own learning. This involved the teacher releasing control over t o the students and allowing them to orally transact within certain boundaries. The outcome of this collaborative environment was the intellectual growth and development of children facing challenges. CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY, FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSION The purpose of this documentary review was to identify instructional strategies shown effective by research to improve reading skills of children facing challenges in grades 4-6 in a general education classroom. Research conducted with this population of students identified cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, and literature study groups as effective in developing reading skills. Research literature was organized according to instructional methods. All methods included time for oral transactions and each addressed some components of the reading process, such as word recognition, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, active learning, and enjoyment of reading. The use of cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, or literature study groups resulted in reading skill improvements. Findings The three strategies contained in this paper all include a focus on involving students in active learning tasks. Cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, and literature study groups also used explanation, scaffolding, and time for oral discusion to various degrees. Explanation Explanation is simply defined as the teacher directed section of instruction. In this paper, explanation includes tutor training and modeling. In the case of Giesecke and Cartledge’s (1993) cross-age tutoring program, most of the explanation took place during the week of tutor training. Tutors learned the session routine, coaching techniques, review games, and testing methods. Only a small amount of time was spent on explanation during tutoring sessions, as the focus was on tutee active participation. Teachers in the second cross-age tutoring program (Taylor and Hanson, 1997), trained tutors in word recognition strategy and used modeling to teach them how to coach tutees. Teachers of strategy instruction (Dole, et. al., 1996) provided direct explanation about how and why to use the prior knowledge strategy and modeled its use. Teachers of Transactional Literature Discussions instructed and modeled for students how to perform the literacy activities involved in TLD and h ow to use meaning-making strategies. Like both cross-age tutoring programs, the Extended Classic Books program (McCutchen, et. al, 1993) also involved tutor training. Prior to meeting with students, group leaders were instructed in the needs of the students and trained in strategies for completing reading and discussing literature. In addition, trainers modeled how to lead a group discussion. When the student discussion groups began, group leaders provided the students with a condensed version of this training. Explanation is a basic requirement for teaching and all strategies implemented it. Scaffolding Scaffolding, in which the teacher supports students to become independent in the use of a strategy, was used in three of the studies. Instead of relying on direct instruction, the teacher act as a coach, giving prompts and clues, to assist the students in internalizing strategy use. By using scaffolding and coaching the teacher facilitates a student-directed approach to learning. The cross-age tutoring program at Webster magnet (Taylor Hanson, 1997) emphasized the importance of coaching tutees to use word recognition strategies independently to aid in text comprehension. Tutors used prompts, such as covering up part of a word or telling the beginning sound, to assist tutees in word decoding. Students of strategy instruction (Dole, et. al., 1996) were expected to gradually assume responsibility for using the strategy and transfer it to independently read text. When students were having difficulty the teacher provided students with hints, cues, and reminders. Transactional Literature Discussions (Dugan Bean, 1996) were based on scaffolded literacy events in which the reader took on increasing responsibility for completing literacy activities independently and using strategies to comprehend texts. In the first five sessions, learning was mostly teacher-dire cted but by the last five sessions the tacher acted only as a facilitator while students were self-directed. During student led discussions the teacher’s role was to give prompts, ask questions of clarification, and provide positive reinforcement. Through the use of scaffolding and coaching in literacy strategies, teachers increase the probability that students will transfer those skills to other content areas and independently read texts. Oral Discussion Constructing meaning through interactions with peers is crucial to engaging students in active learning. It allows them to hear different perspectives, work coopertively, communicate, receive immediate feedback, and explain their strategies (Jaramillo, 1996). The complex social context created by oral discussion among students is essential for higher order thinking (Vygotsky, 1986). In fact, it is so indispensable that four of the five studies reviewed in this paper incorporated it. Tutors of cross-age tutoring were given time to discuss and reflect on problems, concerns, and successful experiences from the tutoring sessions. Some were were alloted time prior to each tutoring session (Giesecke Cartledge, 1993), while others engaged in group oral reflections two days a week (Taylor Hanson, 1997). In order to allow students maximum benefits from jointly constructing meaning, Transactional Literature Discussions (Dugan Bean, 1996) apportioned the greatest part of instructional time to discussion. Students prepared for the discussions by making notes as they read, then used those to guide their talk. In addition, two written reflection activities followed the discourse so that students could expand and evaluate their thinking. Students in Extended Classic Books (McCutchen, et. al., 1993) were encouraged to share personal stories, ask questions, and evaluate their thinking during group literature discussions. The oral transactions among the students in these studies permitted the active negotiation of meaning. It is likely that explanation, scaffolding, and oral discusions were partly responsible for gains in reading achievement found by researchers of cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, and literature study goups. By incorporating these threads with instruction of children facing challenges, students were engaged in routines involving active learning tasks that allowed for cognitive growth. Implications for teachers Simply being able to list these strategies is not enough to be of benefit to children whose everyday lives are filled with challenges. Teachers must understand the theory behind these strategies and also understand how to effectively implement them within a typical classroom setting. Teachers must realize that this will not happen in one day; it is a process of teacher modeling and student opportunities to practice that allows change to occur. There are several ways teachers can implement these strategies in the classroom. There are two fundamental things needed to implement cross-age tutoring within the typical classroom. First is a willingness to work cooperatively with teachers from other grade levels. Teachers must form partnerships so that students from different grades can serve as tutors or tutees. Second is a willingness to give up some direct control and create a classroom community in which students share responsibility. This willingness must be supported by a genuine belief that students can be valuable teachers of their peers. Through these fundamentals, teachers will see improvements in the self-concept and reading skills of their students. Literature study groups can be easily applied within a heterogeneous classroom. Students can be introduced to Transactional Literature Discussions as a whole class; moved into small groups for reading, wondering on paper, and talk sessions, then regrouped to discuss the stories as a whole (Dugan, 1997). Teachers can also introduce the concept to their class by working with small groups or assigning students to guide the discussions. By implementing this strategy teachers increase the likelihood that their students will not only enjoy reading more but will also make improvements in fluency and comprehension. Strategy instruction is also suitable for use in a classroom comprised of students with differing abilities and needs. As Dole and others (1996) determined, some students do not benefit from the strategy instruction used in their study, but may be better helped by instruction that focuses on their own metacognitive strategy processes. For this reason, teachers need be strike a balance in their instruction by using both prior knowledge strategy instruction and metacognitive strategy instruction. Although students should be encouraged to try the Dole and colleagues’ strategy, a student should not be cajoled into using the strategies presented by the teacher if the student finds that it does not work for him/her. This method of instruction requires teacher reflection and an awareness of individual student instructional needs. Recommendations for future research The greatest need in the area of instructional strategies for children facing challenges is that studies be conducted using larger populations of children. Most studies to date have focused on small groups of children. In fact, for this documentary review, I was only able to locate one study that involved a fairly large population of students (Dole et al., 1996). Of the studies that are conducted, most are not conducted in the students’ regular classroom. Although the results appear to be applicable to the regular classroom, only Dole and colleagues’ (1996) study was conducted in a setting similar to a typical classroom. The others were conducted in a pull out type setting using small groups of students who met in the library or reading coordinator’s office. Studies done within the context of a regular classroom setting would extend our understanding of the benefits of the strategies. If the research included details about all the minor interruptions, beha vior disturbances, and other everyday obstacles that make up a school day, teachers could judge whether they would be able to implement a particular strategy in their classrooms, and researchers could better evaluate the real-life effectiveness of these strategies. Conclusion Reading is a multifaceted process (Pearson Stephens, 1994). There is great emphasis on providing support for young readers. Reading problems of older students, those in grades 4 and above, may go unseen because these students do not usually receive the same intensity of support. Because their reading difficulties have gone unnoticed, children in upper elementary grades get labels instead of the instruction they need (Swadener Lubeck, 1995). However, this research provides insight into three strategies that have been effective with children who have challenges in reading and other areas of their lives. By using the strategies presented in this paper, educators can begin to find assist students in grades 4-6 who are having difficulties with reading. All students are different; therefore teachers must be ware of each student’s needs and be cautious as they implement new strategies. Although these three strategies have been shown effective with children facing challenges, even these strategies will not work for every child. Cross-age tutoring, strategy instruction, and literature study groups are not prescriptions to be handed out as a cure all for the difficulties students face in school. Teachers must decipher which instructional methods will work for particular students in a classroom. In order to transform students’ challenges to strengths, teachers must reflect on their teaching methods and their students. By doing this, educators can find teaching methods that work for children facing challenges. Citation Information Purpose/ Rationale Participants Design Findings Implications/ Future Research Dole, J. A., Brown, K. J. (1996). The effects of strategy instruction on the comprehension performance of at-risk students. Reading Research Quarterly 31(1), 62-88. *To test whether a student centered strategy for activating their own prior knowledge would be useful in comprehending independently read texts Grades: 5 6 #: 67 Selection: academic social backgrounds of students met federal criteria for designation of at-risk Compared story content instruction, strategy instruction, traditional basal instruction over 5 weeks * Strategy instruction group scored significantly higher than the other two groups on posttests for comprehension *At-risk students benefit from direct teacher explanation, scaffolding, coaching, tasks that make them active learners FutureResearch: Role of motivation in strategy use instruction Dugan, J., Bean, R. (1996, April). Can I say what I think? A case study of at-risk readers making meaning during Transactional Literature Discussions. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY.(ERIC D.R.S. No. ED 395300). *Investigate nature of interaction dialogue of at-risk readers scaffolded lit. discussions *Determine effects of an instructional approach on their reading, writing, understanding of literature Grade: 5 #: 6 Selection: based on poor classroom IRI comprehension performance # of Sessions: 15 group sessions of 45 mnts. over 8 wks. *4 students made gains of one or more grade levels in comprehension Could be used in small groups in a classroom FutureResearch: *Impact of TLD on readers of differing levels w/a variety of text *Use of scaffolding w/writing responses Giesecke, D., Cartledge, G. (1993) Low-achieving students as successful cross-age tutors. Preventing School Failure 37 (3), 34-44. * Further validate beneficial effects of peer tutoring * Extend knowledge of cross-age peer tutoring when low-achieving students tutor Grade: 4 #: 4 Selection: based on poor reading performance low peer social status Avg. # of Sessions: 16 sessions over 5 weeks *All tutors showed increases in sight-word recognition * All showed improved self-concept Academic performance can be enhanced through tutoring activities FutureResearch: *Low-achieving students as tutors *Effect of tutoring on teachers’ attitudes APPENDIX A References Allington, R. L. (2001). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research-based programs. New York: Addison-Wesley. Allington, R. L. (1993). Reducing the risk: Integrated Language Arts in restructured elementary schools (Report Series 1.9). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Allington, R. L., McGill-Franzen, A. (1989). 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Hanson, B. E. (1997). Helping struggling readers: Linking small-group intervention with cross-age tutoring. Reading Teacher, 51(3), 196-210. Vygotsky, L. (1978). In M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, E. Sauberman (Eds.), Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wang, M. C. Reynolds, M. C. (Eds.). (1995). Making a difference for students at risk. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Research Papers on Effective Institutional Strategies For Improving Reading Skills - Education Research PaperStandardized TestingPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalHip-Hop is ArtThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseGenetic EngineeringThe Project Managment Office System